Yemen and Houthis

Yemen and Houthis

The United States has increased airstrikes on Houthi-controlled regions in Yemen in response to their missile and drone attacks in the Red Sea, citing risks to global shipping routes.

Yemen:
Located at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East, Yemen borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the east. It has coastlines along the Red Sea (west), Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, and Guardafui Channel (south). The Bab el-Mandeb Strait, situated between Djibouti and Yemen, is a critical maritime chokepoint that links the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea via the Red Sea and Suez Canal, making it vital for global trade.

Houthis:

Right to Development and Clean Environment

Right to Development and Clean Environment

In its ruling on The Auroville Foundation vs. Navroz Kersasp Mody (2025), the Supreme Court (SC) affirmed that the right to development through industrialization holds equal importance to the right to a clean environment. The Court stressed the need for a "golden balance" between the two, under Articles 14, 19, and 21 of the Constitution.

Case Background:
In 2022, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) had halted the development of Auroville in Tamil Nadu, citing environmental concerns in the Darkali forest. The Auroville Foundation challenged this order, arguing that the Auroville Master Plan had statutory authority and did not require additional environmental clearance.

SC Ruling:

State of Global Climate Report 2024

State of Global Climate Report 2024

Why in the News?

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has released its State of Global Climate Report 2024, warning that global warming is approaching the 1.5°C threshold set by the Paris Agreement.

Key Findings of the Global Climate Report

• Current Warming Levels: Global temperatures have risen by 1.34–1.41°C above pre-industrial levels, with 19 of the past 20 months exceeding the 1.5°C threshold. The world may surpass this critical threshold by September 2029.

• Extreme Weather Events: In 2024, extreme weather conditions led to record displacements due to cyclones, floods, and droughts, exacerbating food crises. Heatwaves also affected regions including East Asia, Southeast Europe, the Mediterranean, West Asia, and the southwestern US.

• Carbon Dioxide Levels: Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations reached 151% of pre-industrial levels in 2023, the highest in 800,000 years.

• Cryosphere Decline: Arctic sea ice hit record lows for the 18th consecutive year, while Antarctic sea ice recorded its second-lowest extent in 2024.

• Irreversible Impacts:

Return of Butch Wilmore and Sunita Williams from the ISS

Return of Butch Wilmore and Sunita Williams from the ISS

Why in the News?

NASA astronauts Butch Wilmore and Sunita Williams have returned to Earth after an unexpectedly extended 286-day mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Originally planned as an 8-day mission, their return was delayed due to issues with Boeing's Starliner spacecraft. They eventually returned aboard SpaceX's Crew Dragon, showcasing both the technological and health challenges of extended space travel.

Key Facts About Starliner Spacecraft and SpaceX’s Crew Dragon

• Starliner Spacecraft: Developed by Boeing in collaboration with NASA’s Commercial Crew Program (CCP), the Starliner spacecraft was designed to transport astronauts to and from low Earth orbit (LEO). It was responsible for taking Williams and Wilmore to the ISS in 2024 but propulsion issues delayed their return.

• SpaceX’s Crew Dragon: The Crew Dragon is one of the two variants of SpaceX’s Dragon 2 spacecraft, featuring a reusable capsule and launching atop a Falcon 9 rocket. Developed under NASA’s CCP, Crew Dragon primarily ferries astronauts to the ISS, while its counterpart, Cargo Dragon, is used for transporting cargo. The Crew Dragon spacecraft, named Freedom, was used to bring Williams and Wilmore back to Earth during NASA’s SpaceX Crew-9 mission.

Health Implications of Space Travel

• Space Anemia: A condition where astronauts experience a reduction in red blood cell count due to fluid shifts in microgravity, leading to fatigue, dizziness, and cardiovascular risks post-mission.

• Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS): A vision impairment caused by fluid shifts in microgravity that result in optic disc swelling and farsightedness.

• Baby Feet Syndrome: Refers to the hypersensitivity of astronauts’ feet and difficulty walking after prolonged space missions. In microgravity, the lack of weight-bearing activity causes foot calluses to disappear, making the skin soft and sensitive upon return to Earth.

• Bone Density Loss: Studies by NASA show that astronauts lose around 2% of their bone density per month in space. Without countermeasures such as exercise, this loss can lead to osteoporosis-like conditions.

• Cosmic Radiation Exposure: In space, astronauts face direct exposure to cosmic rays and solar radiation, unlike Earth, where the atmosphere and magnetic field protect against these rays. This exposure can lead to DNA damage, genetic mutations, and an increased risk of cancer. Deep-space missions, like those to Mars and the Moon, present higher risks due to prolonged exposure.

India's Gaganyaan Mission and Bhartiya Antriksh Station (BAS)

• Gaganyaan Mission: India’s upcoming mission to send three astronauts on a 3-day journey to a 400 km orbit, returning them safely to Earth. This mission will place India alongside the US, Russia, and China in human spaceflight. The Gaganyaan mission’s immediate goal is to demonstrate human spaceflight to Low Earth Orbit, with the long-term aim of establishing a sustained Indian human space exploration program.

• Bhartiya Antriksh Station (BAS): India’s planned space station, which will orbit Earth at 400–450 km. The first module, the Base Module, is expected to be launched in 2028, with full operational capacity by 2035. The BAS will support human spaceflight, Earth observation, and microgravity research, while fostering technological innovations.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Agriculture: Ensuring Agricultural Sustainability in India

Agriculture: Ensuring Agricultural Sustainability in India

For Prelims: National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), Soil Degradation, Sequestering Carbon, National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), Disease-resistant Crops
For Mains: The necessity of sustainable agriculture to prevent environmental degradation.

Why is this Important?

The Union Minister for Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare recently emphasized the policy paper released by ICAR titled ‘A Spatial Assessment of Sustainability in Indian Agriculture’ and highlighted the significance of the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).

The paper reveals that India’s agricultural sustainability is at great risk due to issues like water scarcity, soil degradation, and socio-economic vulnerabilities.

Key Findings from ICAR’s Policy Paper:

• Composite Index: The national average sustainability index stands at 0.49, indicating a moderate level of sustainability, based on 51 indicators covering environmental health, soil and water quality, and socio-economic development.

• State Performance: States such as Mizoram, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Manipur, West Bengal, and Uttarakhand perform better than the national average due to factors like crop diversification, infrastructure, credit access, and sustainable inputs. On the other hand, states like Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Haryana, Jharkhand, and Assam face higher risks due to arid conditions, climate change, and intensive farming practices.

Major Threats to Agriculture:

Carbon Credit Trading Scheme

Carbon Credit Trading Scheme

For Prelims: Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) Scheme, Carbon Credit Certificate, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Carbon Market
For Mains: Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, Strengthening CCTS in India, Carbon Pricing
Why in the News?

The Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2023, introduced under the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022, replaces the Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) scheme and aims to establish the Indian Carbon Market (ICM), aligning with India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.

What is the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS)?
CCTS is a market-driven initiative designed to regulate and trade carbon credits within the Indian Carbon Market (ICM). The goal is to decarbonize India’s economy by pricing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and facilitating carbon trading.

Transition from PAT to CCTS:
While the PAT scheme focused on energy efficiency in energy-intensive industries using Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts), CCTS shifts the focus towards reducing GHG emissions. It tracks emissions per tonne of CO2 equivalent (tCO2e) and issues Carbon Credit Certificates (CCC), with each certificate representing a one-tonne reduction in CO2 equivalent.

Mechanisms of CCTS:

• Compliance Mechanism: Energy-intensive sectors, such as Aluminium, Cement, Fertilizers, and Iron & Steel, are mandated to meet GHG reduction targets. Entities exceeding targets earn CCCs, while those falling short must purchase credits.
• Offset Mechanism: Allows voluntary participation from entities outside the compliance framework to earn carbon credits by reducing emissions.

Key Sectors Included:
CCTS targets energy-intensive industries responsible for 16% of India’s emissions, such as Iron & Steel, Aluminium, Cement, Fertilizers, Petroleum Refineries, Pulp & Paper, and Textiles. The power sector, which contributes 40% of India's GHG emissions, may be included in the future.

Regulatory Oversight:
The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and the National Steering Committee for Indian Carbon Market (NSCICM) are responsible for the regulation of CCTS.

Significance of CCTS in India’s Climate Goals:
India aims to reduce emission intensity by 45% by 2030. CCTS encourages private sector participation, promoting clean technologies, renewable energy, and carbon capture.

What is Carbon Pricing?
Carbon pricing is an economic tool that assigns a cost to carbon emissions, reflecting the external costs associated with their impact, such as crop damage, healthcare costs, and property losses due to extreme weather. It shifts the financial responsibility to the polluters, incentivizing them to either reduce emissions, pay the penalty, or invest in cleaner technologies.

Current Global Carbon Pricing:
Carbon pricing mechanisms are operational in 89 countries, covering 25% of global emissions (12.8 gigatonnes of CO₂). The primary mechanisms used are:

1. Emissions Trading System (ETS): Includes Cap-and-Trade and Baseline-and-Credit approaches for trading emission units.
2. Carbon Tax: Imposes a fixed tax per tonne of CO₂, without guaranteeing specific reductions.
3. Crediting Mechanism: Generates carbon credits from GHG reductions, which can be traded for compliance or voluntary mitigation.

Challenges in Implementing CCTS:

1. Target Setting and Carbon Pricing: Striking a balance between emission reduction targets is crucial. Lenient targets may lead to oversupply of credits and lower prices, while stringent targets could increase compliance costs.
2. Compliance and Enforcement: Under the PAT scheme, 50% of required ESCerts were left unpurchased with no penalties, highlighting the need for stronger enforcement.
3. Delays in Credit Issuance: Delays in credit issuance under the PAT scheme have undermined market confidence, and similar delays in the CCTS could hinder clean energy investment.
4. Transparency Issues: A lack of publicly available data on emissions and compliance might reduce trust in the market.

How Can India Strengthen CCTS?

1. Align with International Best Practices: Learn from the EU ETS by tightening emission caps, ensuring carbon price stability, and establishing strong compliance frameworks.
2. Capacity Building: Enhance Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) to ensure credibility.
3. Robust Trading Platform: Implement digital registries to track credits and prevent fraud.
4. Cross-Border Compatibility: Ensure compatibility with international systems, such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), to avoid trade restrictions.
5. Encourage Industry Participation: Provide incentives, such as tax benefits, for companies that reduce emissions beyond their compliance obligations and promote investment in green technologies.

Drishti Mains Question:

Namami Gange Programme

 Namami Gange Programme

Why in News?
The Namami Gange Programme (NGP) has made significant strides in its goal to rejuvenate the holy River Ganga.

Initially launched in 2014 with a budget of Rs 20,000 crore until 2021, the program has now been extended to March 2026 with an additional Rs 22,500 crore, bringing the total budget to Rs 42,500 crore.

What is the Namami Gange Programme?
About:
Namami Gange is a flagship initiative aimed at revitalizing the Ganga River and its tributaries by reducing pollution, enhancing water quality, and restoring the river’s ecosystem.

Implementation:
The program operates through a Five-Tier Structure for Ganga rejuvenation, with eight strategic pillars that guide its execution.

Key Interventions:

1. Pollution Abatement (Nirmal Ganga): Establishing sewage treatment plants (STPs) and reducing the discharge of industrial and domestic waste.
2. Ecology and Flow Improvement (Aviral Ganga): Restoring the natural flow of the river and enhancing biodiversity, alongside implementing water conservation measures.
3. Strengthening People-River Connect (Jan Ganga): Encouraging community participation and raising awareness while involving local stakeholders in conservation activities.
4. Facilitating Research and Policy (Gyan Ganga): Promoting scientific research, studies, and the development of evidence-based policies.

Implementation Model:
The Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM) is used for the development, operation, and maintenance of STPs. An Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) formed by the winning bidder manages these tasks. The payment is split with 40% paid after construction and 60% over the project’s lifespan.

Key Achievements:

• Pollution Abatement: The sewage treatment capacity has been increased by over 30 times since before 2014.
• Water Quality Improvement:
  • In Uttar Pradesh, BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) reduced from 10-20 mg/l (2015) to 3-6 mg/l (2022).
  • In Bihar, it dropped from 20-30 mg/l (2015) to 6-10 mg/l (2022).
  • In West Bengal, BOD decreased from 10-20 mg/l (2018) to 6-10 mg/l (2022).
• Biodiversity Impact: The Gangetic river dolphin population rose from 3,330 in 2018 to 3,936 in 2024, with sightings extending to new regions like Bithura to Rasula Ghat (Prayagraj), Babai, and Bagmati Rivers.
• Global Recognition:
  • In December 2022, the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration recognized NGP as one of the Top 10 World Restoration Flagship Initiatives.
  • The International Water Association awarded NGP the title of Climate Smart Utility.

Importance of River Ganga:

• Lifeline of India: The Ganga supports 47% of India’s population across 11 states.
• Agriculture & Economy: 65.57% of the river basin is used for agricultural purposes.
• Cultural & Religious Significance: The Ganga holds sacred value for millions across various religions.
• Water Scarcity: The Ganga River Basin is the second most water-stressed area in India, with only 39% of the average per capita annual rainfall input.

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UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQ)

Prelims

1. Which of the following are the key features of the ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)’? (2016)

   • The river basin is the unit for planning and management.
   • It leads the national efforts for river conservation.
   • One of the Chief Ministers from states through which the Ganga flows serves as Chairman of NGRBA on a rotating basis.
     Select the correct answer using the code below:
     (a) 1 and 2 only
     (b) 2 and 3 only
     (c) 1 and 3 only
     (d) 1, 2, and 3

   Answer: (d)

2. Consider the following statements: (2014)

   • The Animal Welfare Board of India was established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
   • The National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body.
   • The National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister.

   Which of the statements above are correct?
   (a) 1 only
   (b) 2 and 3 only
   (c) 2 only
   (d) 1, 2, and 3

   Answer: (b)

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Preventive Detention

Preventive Detention

Why in News?

The Supreme Court (SC) of India, in the case Mortuza Hussain Choudhury vs. State of Nagaland (2025), reiterated that preventive detention is an extreme measure and requires strict adherence to constitutional and legal safeguards. The ruling struck down the detention orders from Nagaland, finding them to be unjustified and in violation of legal principles.

What is the SC Ruling Regarding Preventive Detention?