Yemen and Houthis

Yemen and Houthis

The United States has increased airstrikes on Houthi-controlled regions in Yemen in response to their missile and drone attacks in the Red Sea, citing risks to global shipping routes.

Yemen:
Located at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East, Yemen borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the east. It has coastlines along the Red Sea (west), Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, and Guardafui Channel (south). The Bab el-Mandeb Strait, situated between Djibouti and Yemen, is a critical maritime chokepoint that links the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea via the Red Sea and Suez Canal, making it vital for global trade.

Houthis:

Right to Development and Clean Environment

Right to Development and Clean Environment

In its ruling on The Auroville Foundation vs. Navroz Kersasp Mody (2025), the Supreme Court (SC) affirmed that the right to development through industrialization holds equal importance to the right to a clean environment. The Court stressed the need for a "golden balance" between the two, under Articles 14, 19, and 21 of the Constitution.

Case Background:
In 2022, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) had halted the development of Auroville in Tamil Nadu, citing environmental concerns in the Darkali forest. The Auroville Foundation challenged this order, arguing that the Auroville Master Plan had statutory authority and did not require additional environmental clearance.

SC Ruling:

Micro-Lightning and the Origin of Life

Micro-Lightning and the Origin of Life

Why in the News?

A study from Stanford University proposes that micro-lightning—small electrical discharges within water droplets—may have played a significant role in the formation of organic molecules essential for life on Earth, challenging the traditional Miller-Urey hypothesis.

Key Findings of the Study on the Origin of Life on Earth

• Discovery: The study revealed that when water droplets splash or spray, they generate electrical charges. These charges interact to create micro-lightning, which may have facilitated the formation of crucial biomolecules.

• Spontaneous Biomolecule Formation: The research showed that micro-lightning could spontaneously synthesize substances such as uracil (a key RNA and DNA component), glycine (an essential amino acid for protein synthesis), and hydrogen cyanide (a precursor to more complex biochemical compounds).

• Implication: These findings suggest that micro-lightning in natural water bodies like oceans, waterfalls, and rainfall may have driven prebiotic chemistry, contributing to the emergence of life on Earth.

Implications of the Study

• Challenges to the Miller-Urey Hypothesis: The study suggests that micro-lightning in water bodies might have played a more prominent role in the origins of life than the rare lightning strikes proposed by the Miller-Urey model.

• Astrobiological Significance: This mechanism could potentially operate on icy moons such as Europa and Enceladus, enhancing the possibility of discovering extraterrestrial life.

What is the Miller-Urey Hypothesis?

The Miller-Urey hypothesis (1952) suggests that life on Earth originated from chemical reactions triggered by lightning in the early Earth's atmosphere. Their experiment showed that amino acids, the building blocks of life, could form when electricity was applied to a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen, supporting the idea that organic molecules essential for life could form naturally under conditions similar to early Earth. This provided a scientific basis for abiogenesis—the origin of life from non-living matter.

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State of Global Climate Report 2024

State of Global Climate Report 2024

Why in the News?

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has released its State of Global Climate Report 2024, warning that global warming is approaching the 1.5°C threshold set by the Paris Agreement.

Key Findings of the Global Climate Report

• Current Warming Levels: Global temperatures have risen by 1.34–1.41°C above pre-industrial levels, with 19 of the past 20 months exceeding the 1.5°C threshold. The world may surpass this critical threshold by September 2029.

• Extreme Weather Events: In 2024, extreme weather conditions led to record displacements due to cyclones, floods, and droughts, exacerbating food crises. Heatwaves also affected regions including East Asia, Southeast Europe, the Mediterranean, West Asia, and the southwestern US.

• Carbon Dioxide Levels: Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations reached 151% of pre-industrial levels in 2023, the highest in 800,000 years.

• Cryosphere Decline: Arctic sea ice hit record lows for the 18th consecutive year, while Antarctic sea ice recorded its second-lowest extent in 2024.

• Irreversible Impacts:

Return of Butch Wilmore and Sunita Williams from the ISS

Return of Butch Wilmore and Sunita Williams from the ISS

Why in the News?

NASA astronauts Butch Wilmore and Sunita Williams have returned to Earth after an unexpectedly extended 286-day mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Originally planned as an 8-day mission, their return was delayed due to issues with Boeing's Starliner spacecraft. They eventually returned aboard SpaceX's Crew Dragon, showcasing both the technological and health challenges of extended space travel.

Key Facts About Starliner Spacecraft and SpaceX’s Crew Dragon

• Starliner Spacecraft: Developed by Boeing in collaboration with NASA’s Commercial Crew Program (CCP), the Starliner spacecraft was designed to transport astronauts to and from low Earth orbit (LEO). It was responsible for taking Williams and Wilmore to the ISS in 2024 but propulsion issues delayed their return.

• SpaceX’s Crew Dragon: The Crew Dragon is one of the two variants of SpaceX’s Dragon 2 spacecraft, featuring a reusable capsule and launching atop a Falcon 9 rocket. Developed under NASA’s CCP, Crew Dragon primarily ferries astronauts to the ISS, while its counterpart, Cargo Dragon, is used for transporting cargo. The Crew Dragon spacecraft, named Freedom, was used to bring Williams and Wilmore back to Earth during NASA’s SpaceX Crew-9 mission.

Health Implications of Space Travel

• Space Anemia: A condition where astronauts experience a reduction in red blood cell count due to fluid shifts in microgravity, leading to fatigue, dizziness, and cardiovascular risks post-mission.

• Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS): A vision impairment caused by fluid shifts in microgravity that result in optic disc swelling and farsightedness.

• Baby Feet Syndrome: Refers to the hypersensitivity of astronauts’ feet and difficulty walking after prolonged space missions. In microgravity, the lack of weight-bearing activity causes foot calluses to disappear, making the skin soft and sensitive upon return to Earth.

• Bone Density Loss: Studies by NASA show that astronauts lose around 2% of their bone density per month in space. Without countermeasures such as exercise, this loss can lead to osteoporosis-like conditions.

• Cosmic Radiation Exposure: In space, astronauts face direct exposure to cosmic rays and solar radiation, unlike Earth, where the atmosphere and magnetic field protect against these rays. This exposure can lead to DNA damage, genetic mutations, and an increased risk of cancer. Deep-space missions, like those to Mars and the Moon, present higher risks due to prolonged exposure.

India's Gaganyaan Mission and Bhartiya Antriksh Station (BAS)

• Gaganyaan Mission: India’s upcoming mission to send three astronauts on a 3-day journey to a 400 km orbit, returning them safely to Earth. This mission will place India alongside the US, Russia, and China in human spaceflight. The Gaganyaan mission’s immediate goal is to demonstrate human spaceflight to Low Earth Orbit, with the long-term aim of establishing a sustained Indian human space exploration program.

• Bhartiya Antriksh Station (BAS): India’s planned space station, which will orbit Earth at 400–450 km. The first module, the Base Module, is expected to be launched in 2028, with full operational capacity by 2035. The BAS will support human spaceflight, Earth observation, and microgravity research, while fostering technological innovations.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

De-Dollarization and India

De-Dollarization and India

Why in the News?

Recent financial and currency initiatives, particularly within the BRICS+ framework, aim to reduce dependence on the US dollar and create alternative mechanisms for global trade and finance, a process referred to as de-dollarization.

De-dollarization Explained
De-dollarization refers to efforts to reduce the dominance of the US dollar in global trade, finance, and foreign exchange reserves. This process involves replacing the US dollar with other currencies or assets—such as gold, cryptocurrencies, or regional currencies—used for international transactions, commodity trading (like oil), and reserve holdings.

Recent Financial and Currency Initiatives for De-dollarization

1. mBridge Project
   The mBridge project is a cross-border payment system using Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs), initially supported by countries like China and Thailand with backing from the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). However, some speculate that the BIS withdrew its support under US pressure to preserve dollar dominance.

2. BRICS+ Initiatives
   The BRICS+ group, which includes the original BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and new members such as Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, the UAE, and Indonesia, has proposed financial systems like BRICS Bridge and BRICS Clear to establish a payment and clearing system among these countries.

3. Petro-Yuan Market
   The Shanghai International Energy Exchange (2018) handles a significant portion of global oil trade, with Saudi Arabia and the UAE’s shift to non-dollar oil trades boosting the petro-yuan’s credibility as a stable alternative to the US dollar.

4. BRICS Currency
   At the 16th Kazan BRICS summit in 2024, the member nations agreed in principle to create a new settlement currency, the "Unit," which would be backed by 40% gold and 60% local currencies of the member countries.

Global Benefits of De-dollarization

• Reduced Geopolitical Risks: Countries can shield themselves from US sanctions and foreign policy actions that leverage dollar dominance, like freezing assets. For instance, following Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, over USD 300 billion in Russian assets were frozen.

• Diversification: De-dollarization encourages multi-currency usage, reducing dependence on a single currency and fostering a more balanced global financial system.

• Strengthening Regional Currencies: Countries can enhance their currencies for trade, strengthening economic sovereignty and reducing exchange rate risks, such as India’s oil trade with the UAE in rupees.

• Reduced Vulnerability to US Monetary Policy: Countries are less affected by US policy shifts (e.g., interest rate changes), minimizing impacts like capital flight and currency devaluation.

• Increased Use of Gold: De-dollarization has revived interest in gold as a stable reserve asset, offering an alternative to fiat currencies.

• Promotion of Digital Currencies: The trend also accelerates the development of digital currencies and blockchain payments, with examples like China’s digital yuan and India’s Digital Rupee (e₹).

Concerns Associated with Global De-dollarization